Maths attainment can be hindered by internal and external factors. One of the internal factors, dyscalcuilia affects around 5-8% on a global scale, a lot more people struggle with maths anxiety (Hornigold, 2024, p. 13). For many children maths anxiety is the true cause of maths difficulties, which affects an estimate of a quarter of the population (Hornigold, 2017, p. 25) with dyscalculics being twice as likely to suffer from it. (Kelly, 2020, p. 66).
Maths anxiety was first recognized in the 1950s and currently it is defined as “a feeling of tension an apprehension that interferes with maths performance ability, the manipulation of numbers and the solving of mathematical problems in a wide variety of ordinary life and academic situations” (Richardson and Suinn, 1972, cited in Hornigold, 2024, p. 13). Therefore, maths anxiety is considered as performance-based anxiety (Harari, Vukovic & Bailey, 2013, cited in Petronzi et al., 2018), linked to the nature of maths and how it is taught, with heavy reliance on tests, quizzes and little flexibility to learn but the expectation to perform.
Maths anxiety can manifest differently: physiologically, psychologically and behaviorally. Typical physiological symptoms include increased heartbeat and sweating (Petronzi et al., 2018) as well as stomach aches, dry mouth, shortness of breath, tension headaches, clammy hands (Hornigold, 2017, p. 26). The psychological impacts of anxiety include low self-esteem, extreme nervousness, confusion, scattered thoughts, inability to retain information (Hornigold, 2017, p. 26). Behaviorally maths anxiety manifests in biting nails and lips, task avoidance, taking too much time to complete work or not finish it, not showing work, impulsivity with blurting out answers, avoiding challenging questions, saying “I don’t know” and shrugging shoulders (Hornigold, 2024, p. 16). Chinn ( 2012, p.2) describes one of the manifestations of maths anxiety as “no attempt”. Additionally, children would rather act as if they did not care and give up than be told they made a mistake.
While maths anxiety can develop at any age, Pertonzi et al. (Petronzi et al., 2018) found that the first formal experience in maths is seen as a great contributor to its onset as numeracy apprehension. Positive and negative stereotypes about maths and maths achievement influence math achievement and catalyse maths anxiety according to Sharma (Sharma, 2018).
Children, who view themselves as capable are more likely to develop mathematical resilience and persevere through the tasks. They are usually well supported at home, have parents and teachers who are confident about doing maths, have high capability expectations without high performance pressure from their parents and have supportive friends.
Children, who are not confident in maths can develop this fear of maths because teachers can pass on their maths anxiety to learners as some struggled with maths as a learner or as a teacher struggling with maths teaching methods.The reason why math anxiety is high in Asia (Lee, 2009 cited in Petronzi et al., 2018)is high performance expectations at home.
External environmental factors such as Ggender, race, ethnic and social class stereotypes can affect maths attainment even greater than maths anxiety and this is reflected in the numbers of women and minority groups in STEM careers (Bowden et al., 2017). According to research (Douglas and Rittle-Johnson, 2024) the parental influence on maths achievement starts in early childhood with parents’ knowledge of early childhood maths development while early numeracy support predicts children’s attainment several years later. More specifically, maths achievement follows gender role model channels from father to son and from mother to daughter (Bowden et al., 2017). This becomes a stereotype as early as second grade (Cvencek, Meltzoff and Greenwald, 2011) when learners identify maths being for boys. This phenomenon appears to be not country specific yet in the US race accounts for another stereotype. According to the study by US professors (Copur-Gencturk et al., 2020), American teachers are mostly biased against maths achievement by females of color. Aside from stereotypes, absenteeism is another hindrance to maths learning. The Commissioner’s report (Children’s Commissioner for England, 2023)claims that the expected level of maths was achieved by 84% of learners who were almost always present and only by 11% of learners who were severely absent. To counter this, it is recommended to build stronger relationships of support with families.
To support learning in the classroom, one of the strategies in peer support. However, when learners are in competition with each other due to the way the teacher sets up the class culture or because of perception, this is perceived as hierarchy and promotes the divide and isolation in the classroom, which furthers maths anxiety(Hornigold, 2024, p. 20). Girls are more susceptible to developing maths anxiety under these conditions. (Petronzi et al., 2018)
To counteract maths anxiety and foster maths achievement, Boaler (Boaler, n.d.) recommends shifting the mindset of the classroom from performance based to process based. She advocates for using open ended maths tasks which allow for productive struggle and brain synapses development. Especially useful are “a low floor and a high ceiling” tasks (Boaler, 2014)so mistakes [1] can be praised as an opportunity to learn[2] . While Horingold (Hornigold, 2017, p. 27-28)suggests making learning concrete and pictorial deeper understanding, Boaler adds using multiple presentations to communicate mathematical ideas and promote maths creativity. To change the environmental stereotype, Boaler (Boaler, 2015a) offers eliminating timed tests in favor of number talks as the latter reduces the anxiety, while fostering number sense, flexibility in number and deep understanding of numerical principals. Additionally, a new pedagogy has emerged recently. Building Thinking Classrooms (Liljedahl, 2021) focuses on student centered learning, while making maths about communication and making sense, echoing Jo Boaler’s growth mindset principles.
Other support strategies to reduce maths anxiety could be based in masteringfoundational skills (Sharma, 2018) of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division Sharma urges teachers and parents to stress maths mastery by striving for accuracy with numbers and precision in maths language, using efficient procedures and strong conceptual schemas. Additionally, Sharma emphasises fractions as the gateway concept to algebra and higher maths. He outlines a path to be a confident algebra learner by building a foundation of number sense, numeracy and proportional reasoning.
To conclude, internal and external factors influence maths learning. Maths anxiety is a common occurrence in all ages, with varied etiology. Since it is harmful to learning maths, it is important that parents and teachers learn its symptoms. Moreover, there are specific steps teachers can take to reduce maths anxiety, and a change in mindset to combat harmful math stereotypes is one of the foundational means towards a higher maths attainment.